The Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Sampling Methods

There are advantages and disadvantages of using different sampling methods in social research. This article describes them.

1. The advantage of the household survey method is that it provides a sample of an entire population of a country or region. Such a survey might be good to use if one wants to know what people throughout the area are thinking, such as obtaining opinions on an issue to help a politician take a position on a bill for a new park or park improvements. This type of survey might also be good for the government to use in learning about people's preferences about a recreational facility for the area, such as whether they would prefer a zoo or nature park and who would be interested in going.

A disadvantage of the household survey is that it is very time-consuming and laborious to try to obtain a sampling of everyone in the whole population. Also, while most organizations doing national surveys seek to use multi-stage and clustered sampling to make the process of gathering the sample more manageable, there can be problems in doing this. For example, if the researchers try to reduce costs by interviewing a certain number of people on the street and choosing every nth house, they could make the number of clusters too small to include a complete variety of people in the area. Then, too, the researchers might find that people in certain types of households might not want to participate in the survey, most notably those from lower-class homes, which would skew the sample to have a greater percentage of middle and income people represented than their percentage in the population.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Sampling Methods

2. The advantage of sampling for a site, user, or visitor survey is that one can obtain feedback from a population that is actually using a facility or visiting a site. Another advantage is that one can control for randomness by having a trained interviewer select the nth person passing the interviewer or the nth person the interviewer passes after concluding an interview with the previous selected person. This approach can also be adapted for a quota sample, where the interviewer is asked to get the nth person for a number of categories, and as each category is filled, the interviewer stops looking for someone for that category.

A disadvantage of this approach is that an interviewer may fail to follow procedures about selecting interviews and might select someone who seems convenient or avoid other types of interviewees who are more difficult to find or interview. Another disadvantage is that the types of individuals who come at different times of the day may vary, such as having more families with kids coming during the day and teenagers coming at night to an amusement park. As a result, the sampling could become unrepresentative unless it is weighted or a quota sampling approach is used to balance out the different types of people. Another disadvantage could be the problem of non-response, if people entering or leaving the site don't want to be bothered - those on the way in because they are eager to enjoy the site and those on the way out because they are eager to get home. Still another disadvantage if a questionnaire is used is that many respondents may not complete the questionnaire and those who do may be unrepresentative of the whole group, particularly if there is a high return rate. Also, personnel at the site may not carefully hand out the questionnaires, and it may be difficult to supervise this personnel, since their priority is on helping visitors and guests, rather than helping with a survey.

3. The advantage of sampling for a street survey is that it can be good to find out about who is using a particular street, shopping, or tourist area, much like a site, user, or visitor survey. Such a street survey can be combined with a quota sampling approach to obtain information on different types of users or visitors who come to the site at different times, if the background of the population in the area is known.

However, the disadvantage of a street survey, much like a site, user, or visitor survey, is that people on the street may be busy and might not want to take the time to participate in an interview or may not be interested in filling out a questionnaire. As a result, the sample will become biased as a result of differences between those who answer questionnaires or fill out a questionnaire and those who don't. Another disadvantage in some areas is the possible danger of stopping and interviewing people on the street. For instance, in an inner city area, people may be suspicious of outsiders, thinking they might be government workers or undercover cops, so they don't want to answer questions, and there could be a danger to interviewers or those distributing questions, since they might be threatened or attacked. Another disadvantage is that a quota method can't be used if one doesn't already know the background of the people in the area to draw up quotas. Another disadvantage is if people don't want to take the time to respond to a survey on the street, very few will respond to a take-home and return the survey, so it will have a low response rate. An attempt to do a quota survey by e-mail has the disadvantage in that not only may there be a low-response rate, but certain types of people are less likely to use email, such as the lower-income individuals. However, weighting is often used with such surveys to get a sample that corresponds more closely to the percentage of the larger population.

4. The advantage of sampling for a mail survey using the regular mails is it can be a large completely random survey, since the mail generally goes to everyone in the population. However, a disadvantage is that it can be expensive to send out a mail survey to a large group, especially since postal rates have been rising. Another disadvantage is that there is normally a high non-response rate to mailed questionnaires, and those who respond may be different from those who do respond. While the cost factor can be reduced substantially with an email survey, the disadvantage of doing an e-mail survey is that those with e-mails or those who are most likely to respond to emails may be different from the population that doesn't respond as well as to the small population that doesn't have emails, usually because of having a lower income.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Sampling Methods
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GINI GRAHAM SCOTT, Ph.D., J.D., is a nationally known writer, consultant, speaker, and seminar/workshop leader, specializing in recreation and leisure, business and work relationships and in professional and personal development. She has published over 50 books on diverse subjects. Her latest books include: THE VERY NEXT NEW THING, PLAYING THE LYING GAME, WANT IT, SEE IT, GET IT!; ENJOY! 101 LITTLE WAYS TO ADD MORE FUN TO YOUR WORK EVERYDAY; and A SURVIVAL GUIDE FOR WORKING WITH HUMANS...MANAGING EMPLOYEES FROM HELL...and WORKING WITH BAD BOSSES. She is founder and director of Changemakers Publishing and Writing and Changemakers Productions, and has been a featured expert guest on hundreds of TV and radio programs, including Oprah and Good Morning America. She is the host of a weekly syndicated talk radio talk, CHANGEMAKERS, featuring interviews and commentary on various topics. Her Websites are at http://www.changemakerspublishingandwriting.com and http://www.ginigrahamscott.com. She has a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of California in Berkeley, a J.D. from the University of San Francisco Law School, and M.A.s in Anthropology; Mass Communications and Organizational/Consumer/Audience Behavior, and Popular Culture and Lifestyles from California State University, East Bay. She is getting an MS in Recreation and Tourism.

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Under Population and Over Population

Under populations
Under population is the type of population that is less than the available resources of a country. It then means that the size of the population is so small that when combined with the available resources of a country and given the level of existing technology, it will secure minimum returns per head. In summary, under population is a situation where the population is too small relative to the available resources. The standard of living of the area can be increased if the population is increased.

Causes
1. Abundant resources: There will be abundance of resources in areas where there are resources endowment.
2. availability of employment: Due to the small size of the population and abundance of resources, employment opportunities will readily be available.
3. Low pressure on social amenities: Owing to low population, there is also low pressure on social amenities in the area.
4. Low congestion: Also, due to low population, there will be low or no congestion in housing, traffic etc.
5. Adequate planning: Owing to low population, these areas are properly planned for decent living.
6. Low crime rate is greatly reduced.

In as much as there are advantages, there are also disadvantages to, such are: the available labor force is grossly inadequate to mange the abundant resources available in the state; low level of production as a result of low level of manpower available production is generally very low. Workers generally earn low as a result of low level of production income and this leads to low savings and investments. Low standard of living due to inadequate labor force that would have promoted output, the standard of living will eventually fall; pipe borne water electricity etc, are grossly under utilized; disincentive to the government because it does not always feel like investing in places of under-population. As a result of low level of income per capital and fewer number of people, the size of the market is usually very small due to low demand. Finally, as a result of low output of goods and services, there is always a ow level of export for these goods and services.

Under Population and Over Population

Overpopulation
Overpopulation is a situation where a country has more people than its physical and human resources can support with adequate living standards. In other words, over population refers to a situation where the population exceeds the available resources of a country. As a result of overpopulation, people will compete for the available resources and there will be a general fall in standard of living of the people. Over population can be controlled by family planning, discouragement of early marriage, increase in food supply, encouragement of monogamy, limiting the size of towns, provision of gainful employment for women, stiffening of immigration laws, sex and mass education from childhood ages of children and encouragement of emigration from thickly or densely populated areas to lowly populated areas.

Under Population and Over Population
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The Teaching of Sociology

I believe that there is a good case for the teaching of every social science. In particular I support the call for the teaching of sociology to all students in Grade 12 and above. At least one year of study will provide students with the knowledge and skills that will contribute toward their social and academic development. However, it can be offered as an elective to all others who wished to pursue it at a higher level of study. In some countries sociology is taught to students who are 16 and over on a voluntarily basis. I think it is much too important to be treated in this manner.

The Nature of Sociology

Sociology has been defined as many things. In its embryonic stages its founder Comte (1798-1857) thought it to be a natural science no different from biology, chemistry or physics. He believed that it was possible to predict human behavior and so control it in much the same way natural scientists controlled matter. Later on Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), another French sociologist, pioneered the use of statistical analysis in the study of suicide, a social phenomenon. Durkheim argued that in this way it was possible to determine the causal and correlation (al) relationships that exist between and among social variables. These he called 'social facts.' Suicide and marriage are examples of social facts because they have an existence outside the individual and their rates can be quantified so that their impact on human behavior can be ascertained via the use of inductive approaches.

The Teaching of Sociology

Sometime later in Germany Max Weber (1964-1920) launched a scathing counter attack against the use of statistics in the study of human behavior. He claimed that the true goal of sociology is verstehen-interpretive understanding of the procedures people use to understand others during their interactions with them. In this way he provided the impetus for the development of the hermeneutic approach in sociology which proposed that the discipline was rather a social science aimed at understanding how behavior was understood using direct and indirect observation of social phenomena. Many others such as George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer and Alfred Schutz have followed Weber's lead and have promulgated the belief that interpretive approaches and perspectives such as Symbolic Interactionism and Phenomenology.

During the 1950s a group of French philosophers (postmodernists) embarked upon a severe critique of meta- cognition or the thinking of generalizability. This has been the general or overarching principle of both the natural and social science dogmas. The main similarity between them is the proclivity to generalize about the nature and direction of human behavior. This has influenced the writings of others such as Lyotard and de Baudrillard whose works have been applied to the study of sociology. They have argued that in contemporary times (especially since WWII) perspectives such as Marxism have become irrelevant to our understanding of social life. For them life has become centered round signs and symbols. Material goods only become important in so far as they convey specific meanings- signs and symbols. Language is ever more important since it is oft times used to perpetuate a duality. For example the sexual power duality is reproduced in society through language. Because of the verbal portrayal of differences in power between men and women, women are perceived as evil and bad and men as good and rational and this acts as a form of legitimization of sexual politics.

As a direct consequent of these three major debates about the nature of sociology it is extremely difficult to define sociology with any degree of certainty. We know more about what it is not rather than what it in actuality is. Despite this though there is an informal consensus of sorts among its adherents purporting that sociology is a social science in much the same way that psychology, anthropology, economics and political science are.

I have even noted that not much is taking place in changing the face of sociology. It has become stagnated not merely because of the centrality of classical themes such as the role of the bourgeoisie in modern capitalism and the social factors contributing to structured inequality.

Additionally not much has taken place by way of creative innovations in methodological, theoretical and practical shifts or focuses. Despite this drawback though the discipline retains much relevance to social life and should be taught formally in all schools at least from Grade 12.

Some Benefits of Teaching Sociology

These are based on my experience in teaching sociology at advanced level (Grade 13 and higher) for over 10 years in the island of Trinidad.

It facilitates the all round development of the learner (providing ample opportunity for cognitive, affective and psychomotor development). Students learn analytical skills which help them appreciate the nature of social structure and individual interaction both between and within societies (most importantly theirs)

An example of this is de-constructing or analyzing issues or problems

By practicing essay writing they (students) learn to organize and structure ideas logically (sequentially and chronologically if necessary). This is significant for building synthesis and critical thinking skills. Skills of note-taking and note-making are enhanced. However, those of the latter should be emphasized since they allow for the development of student autonomy. Students are allowed the opportunity to plan (for writing) and engage in abstract problem solving skills and competencies. Twentieth-first century skills such as cooperation, team-work and project management can be and are developed and enhanced. It provides opportunity for the enhancement of communicative competence since students participate in debates and discussion about research studies, theories and perspectives. Students are impelled to become more culturally relative and less ethnocentric since they come to appreciate that culture cannot and should not be judged in relation to another. It meets the needs of a particular society or subgroup. It teaches them about the nature and causes and consequences of different forms of inequality such as sex and gender, race/ethnicity, social class and age. Additionally, they learn to become empathetic about marginalized groups and individuals. Students develop citizenship values and attitudes, and decision-making. This helps them to function effectively as members of democratic societies. It allows for the appreciation of diversity in the presentation of 'social reality' so that they come to perceive the differences between universal and culturally specific features of social life. It provides opportunity to view knowledge in a holistic way since sociology is so multi-disciplinary as is social work for instance.

Some Suggestions for the Effective Teaching of Sociology

Use students' experience to help them connect the theories to real world or life experiences. Use a combination of teacher-centered and student-centered approaches. Teacher-centered methods such as lecturing and note-giving are better to use for introducing topics, concepts and issues before deep understanding is developed via the use of child-centered methods such as projects, group work and field work. Use a variety of resources in the same lesson. Pictures, diagrams and audio material are excellent. Use cooperative learning strategies such as jig-saw to deepen student understanding and develop team work and shared responsibility. Provide opportunity for problem-based learning in which students will solve real world issues through the collection of empirical data and analysis of findings from research. Use the lecture method wisely. Do not talk for more than 15 minutes at any one time. Allow lectures to be interrupted by student activity since they like getting involved and having a say. Employ a variety of assessment techniques in your practice such as portfolios, graphic organizers, poetry and song and role-plays. Provide plenty of opportunity for the analysis of statistical data and report findings via graphs, tables, pictures etc. Plan and provide for student participation in activities where students will simulate qualitative data collection techniques such as in-depth interviewing and systematic participant observation. Provide greater opportunity for student dialogue and always provide constructive feedback. Examine the best ways of helping students grow mentally, intellectually, emotionally and spiritually. Invite guest speaker experts to shed light on diverse issues related to the content and everyday life. Make a written plan of the activities for each lesson and change them only if necessary. Use test and exam results to diagnose performance and provide accurate measurement of student performance. Test only what was taught in terms of content and skills. Practice chunking the content by breaking up large amounts into smaller manageable units in accordance to students' age and maturity levels. Ensure students participate in rubric and mark scheme design. This will assist them to understand the standards and benchmarks for academic excellence. Cater for a variety of learning styles in your lessons. Knowledge of the differentiated classroom is an asset to good teaching. Be firm but flexible. Always move from the known to the unknown. Emphasise should be placed on effective concept teaching.

I proffer the suggestion that students should be exposed to an introductory course in the sociology since it will assist them in developing a variety of skills, talents and competences which are critical for life in a modern society.

This article sought to provide some useful guidance for teachers of sociology at any level of academia. It began with summation of the three major polemics in the nature of sociology namely positivist, interpretivist and postmodern. Following this it provided a rationale for its inclusion in the high school or college curriculum and ended by examining some guidelines or useful tips for teaching sociology

The Teaching of Sociology
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Bennie Berkeley has attained PhD in sociology with high commendation from the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. At present he lectures in sociology courses namely Introduction to Sociology and Caribbean Social Structure. Additionally, he conducts methodology seminars for graduate students about to embark upon their research projects in social work and sociology. He supervises a number of students from a cross section of the social sciences including sociology (criminology), social work and mediation studies.

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The Psychology of Family

On the need to study family structures and family interactions in the Psychology of Family

The psychology of family examines how and why we have families and close relationships as also the dynamics of family interactions. The structure of families is based on evolutionary biology, anthropology, history and sociology and the roots of family systems are found within these disciplines. However studying family structure will show us how family systems have evolved over time but may not directly tell us why family relationships develop in the first place. Family relationships are in turn studied with psychology, child development and philosophy and suggest why family forms the basis of our existence. The interdisciplinary approach to the study of family will have psychology at its core as human evolutionary biology, sociology, philosophy have significant psychological components.

To begin an answer to the questions on how family structures have developed, early evolutionary history and anthropology will suggest that family, albeit in a different form is the basis of human civilization. The earliest men who lived in caves and forests, quickly formed groups or tribes to protect themselves from wild animals. Research into anthropological remains has shown the life of primitive humans who were cave dwellers. Forming herds was one of the basic security and safety needs of humans as by forming a large family they could attack or defend themselves against wild animals, warn each other of natural disasters, gather food and raise children in a community, almost like modern day societies. Thus the earliest families were tribes or herds and there were several generations of humans in one family. Family sizes were thus presumably large with entire forest tribes forming single families. However this tribal system of forming large communities possibly did not last long and some humans wanted a different kind of life and migrated to places where there were no communities or tribes. Some others may have simply weighed the disadvantages of a group life as insurmountable and reasons could be possible jealousy regarding mates, dissatisfaction in sharing food, shelter and apathy for the rules of a community life. The freedom seekers moved out of this community pattern and groups became smaller and humans started building their own homes and the first human civilization was thus laid with many smaller families, although large when compared with contemporary nuclear families of a couple and their children. The basic human need of safety and security gave way to the fulfilment of more emotional needs of love and sharing through family systems and humans developed attachment and affection as these were constantly reinforced with rewards of love, love making or promise of love.

The Psychology of Family

Humans as we know were born with some basic drives of sex and aggression, as suggested by Freud but humans found that they could fulfil their sexual needs only when they also showed attachment and affection as attachment and affection were often rewarded with sex and through sex, their aggressive needs were also fulfilled to an extent. That is how humans developed attachment and affection and these positive emotions have been constantly rewarded and thus have been reinforced over time to the point that love in a civilized society has been glorified and sex has been degraded. Of course, psychoanalysis would suggest that love is just a sugar coating on our real primal sexual needs, the fact remains that humans have constantly found that indirect love needs are more readily rewarded than direct sexual needs and thus developed these positive emotions of love and attachment as the basis of family structures. Experiments by psychologist B. F. Skinner successfully showed that behaviors are reinforced when rewarded. Family systems are built on the foundation of love, attachment, loyalty, trust, which in turn fulfils safety and status needs and thus psychology is an important ingredient in family interactions.

The Psychology of Family could be divided into two branches -

The Psychology of Family Structures:

The psychology of family could possibly branch out to two directions on understanding how and why family structures have evolved in a specific way. Why did the earliest humans form tribes or groups and why did they suddenly abandon the nomadic life to begin farming and settled in homes? How did communities form and why were social rules made that helped to protect the family system? Why did the family size diminish over time? What needs were fulfilled with the changing family patterns? This branch of the psychology of family studies social systems, political systems, civilizations and history and evolutionary biology and anthropology. This is the structure of the family, the basic family systems and the psychological basis of the evolution of family. Here the basic social psychology of group behavior and group formation highlights the reasons of forming groups through cooperation (with other members) and identification (with the group) as found in earliest humans and continues to this day. Kurt Lewin, Bruce Tuckman and Gustav Le Bon are noted group behavior theorists in social psychology and studied group behavior as the basis of social development. Family formation could be explained with Maslow's hierarchy of needs as family provides the basic safety and security as well as love needs and in some cases also fulfils our status needs. I have discussed Maslow at length in another essay. The basic drives of sex and aggression being fulfilled through love and attachment as we get in families would be a Freudian explanation of family systems. Existentialism by Sartre who claimed that man is thrown alone in this world with an inherent sense of isolation could explain the need to overcome this loneliness. Group structure and group interaction are both explained with these varied theories.

The Psychology of Family Interactions/Relationships

The second branch would however be about the family relationships, the basic psychological and emotional nuances of family members, their interactions and interrelationships, the emotions of love and trust and the functions or role of family in an individual's life. This branch would emphasize on family relationships and the psychological basis of emotional interaction in the family and how this relates to the outer world. This branch also studies how our family patterns and relationships closely affects our interactions in the outside world and how we behave in the community, society and the world. This branch of psychology is also related closely to issues of existentialism and phenomenology in philosophy as with the family, man does not feel completely lonely or isolated in the world as existentialism would claim but rather develop a sense of belongingness and through family humans first relate to the outside world. The family is thus the stepping stone, the first stage on which we begin our learning about the world. This is also an important part of child development studies. In addition to the theories of Freud, Maslow, Lewin and Sartre, the theories of Erik Erikson in which the stages of man from birth to death show why humans form relationships, could well explain the dynamics of family interactions and relationships. Erikson has also been elaborated in another essay, but briefly in Erikson's theory humans go through eight stages in psychosocial development from hope and trust in infancy to integrity or despair in old age.

On the one hand we study changing family patterns and in some cases comparisons are drawn within cultural studies as families in different cultures could have different patterns and structures. For example large families are still prevalent in Eastern societies although this is becoming almost extinct in western more individualistic societies. With marriage rates falling drastically and people preferring to remain single, the study of the family structure and its gradual change could help us analyze and predict future patterns in family as well. Will the family system become slowly extinct with individualistic societies showing a decline in the number of members within a family? It could be predicted that a hundred years from now, individualistic single member families would become a norm worldwide and this could further lead to isolation, loneliness and a need to emotionally connect that would see humans forming large groups or herds or close communities once again. These will however be the ultra urban, technologically superior tribes, possibly space travelling nomads, like we see herds or groups of aliens in movies related to alien culture and UFOs. Aliens who are considered superior to us and possibly reside in UFOs are always shown or seen in groups or herds as you will notice. Ever wondered why the aliens are always in groups or herds? Possibly they have passed through all the evolutionary stages of humans and thus are more evolved than us. The future is possibly a return to the past, to formation of tribes, groups, herds and communities, rather than small families. I don't claim to believe in UFOs and aliens but this is possible and is based on speculation but the evolution of the structure of family systems would also depend on how our emotional needs for interactions and relationships change or evolve.

Apart from the theories of Maslow (safety/love needs), Freud (basic drives), Existentialism (loneliness) Lewin (Group formation) that could be related to the need for family structures, the psychology of family will have to gauge human emotions in different family situations and this would be about child and adult development considering theories of Erikson (life stages), Freud (on sexuality) and the reinforcement of positive emotions

The Psychology of Family
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Reflections in Psychology - Part I - by Saberi Roy (2009) Copyright: Saberi Roy (2007/2009) http://www.lulu.com/content/5865445

Reflections in Psychology - Part II by Saberi Roy (2010) Copyright: Saberi Roy (2010 -) http://www.saberiroy.com

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African American Women Stereotypes: Sapphire

One of the three most common stereotypes worn by African American women is one called the "Sapphire." A woman fitting this stereotype is loud, mouthy, and neck-rolling. She is constantly ready to put her hands on her hips and tell someone off. She takes no mess and people had better be watch their step around her. She may be a hater of men, disrespecting and emasculating them.

This stereotype is probably the main one people think of when they see an image of an African American woman in their minds.

In the movies and on television shows, African American women play this type of character, reinforcing the stereotype. Even programs that were supposed to be progressive for black people included black ladies acting out this Sapphire persona. Think about the characters Aunt Esther from Sanford and Son, Harriet Winslow from Family Matters, Lisa Landry from Sister Sister.

African American Women Stereotypes: Sapphire

These images are harmful. Black women are the least likely to ever marry. Who would want to marry a woman who is supposedly so mouthy and domineering? Men generally are programmed to stay away from black women and it does not help that black men will confirm these ideas while demeaning their own women. Thus, African American women are not likely to be desired and sought as life partners by anyone.

It is true that many do fit this Sapphire caricature to some degree, which does make it difficult for the media to stop portraying them in this way.

Just understand that African American women are individuals and should not be judged by a character on a television screen.

African American Women Stereotypes: Sapphire
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Wouldn't it be wonderful if there were an online forum where topics like this are discussed daily? Are you a black woman who needs an outlet? Are you a white male interested in meeting black women and learning how they see the world? Are you a black man who loves black women? Would you like to see photos of all types of beautiful black women?

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